75 10 1.W a 7720. Hodo 132.Ga f78 81 8523. Shika 29 8624. Nomi305.D e m o ZIALLJrfpdTT:J476H21.Bakari 22. Dake 26 3.M o4.-Temo(-demo) ( )8725. Kiri 33 6.T o 88 89 26. N o d e 27. Monode40 41 7.T o w a 8.Y a HR!VFiF -144aL-tho92 28. Keredomo 29. Tokorode 42 43 9.Toka 10. Nado 11.Ka Previo ly published under the sametitle in the Power Japanese Series (1991). 93 94 95 96 30. Noni31.K IlSe ni 32. M o n o n o 33. Tokoro ga f34. -Ba 52 60 45 49 13.Ni 14. E 12. D e 97 61 15. Kara . - . I s11 Distributed in theUnited States by Kodansha A mericaInc. and in the United Kingdomand continental Europeby' Kodansha EuropeLtd. Published by KodanshaIntemationa1 Ltd.17-14 Otowa 1-chome BunkyokuTokyo 112-8652andKodansha AmericaInc. pyright C1991 by Naoko C hino. All rightsreserved. Printed in Japan. ISBN-13: 97-4-7700-2781-8ISBN10:7700-2781-8First edition1991 First de paperback edition2001 12 1110 09 08 07 0615 14 13 12 11 10987 135. -Tara 65 16. Made 10236.Nara 68 17. N o a:10337. Mononara 72 18.0 www.1uHuJnshaintLcom38.Tokoro 10559. Na 135 39. Monoo 10660. Sa 137 P R E F A C E40.-Nagara 6 1076l.Koto 138 4l.-Tari 10862. -Kke 139 42. Shi 11063.-Tteba 140 4"3.Tomo 11164. -1 140 Some things are easier to learnothers. Takefor instance 44. Yara 11465. Mono 141 Japanesenounsverbsadjectivesand adverbs. Once you have alitt1e grammarunder your beltyou can pick them up and squirrel 45. Dano 11666. Ze143 themawaywirelative ease. For some reasonthoughis doesn't 4 6Nari 11767. Zo 143 work with partic1es. They can't be lookeduppinned downor pigeonholed in the same way that their fel10ws can.Yet their cor-47. -Tewa (-dewa) 68. Monoka 144 rect usage isessential to speaking Japanese wiany degree of ( )119 69. Niuency.145 W hy are partic1es so elusive? Because partic1es are nextto mean-48. Dokoro 121 ingless as isolated entities. A partic1einfactmight be defined as 49. Toshite 122 Index a non-conjugatingpart of speechbearing an absolute minimum 146 50. Yori 123 ofindependent meaningwhich atlaches itself to other parts of 5l.Saespeech and thereby places them in context. T husa statement 126consisting of a single partic1e wouldn't convey much meaning. 52.Sura 127 But the addition of another word would make a world ofdiffer-53.Koso ence. Aphrase like o ni (to Tokyo)for instancewould127 communicate somethingbut not ni by itself. The rule of thumbight be: Japanese partic1es have virtual1y no meaning bereft ofcontext. Sentence-endingIn is book1 propose to c1arify thefunctions of a consider-Particles able number of partic1estodescribe their various usagesand 54. Ne 128 most irnportanttoexemplify each and eve..yusage with sample sentences. Only in isway-through context- can the student 55. Yo 131 truly come to gripswith the Japanese partic1e.56. W a 132 Don't be surprised bycertain of the partic1es taken up here.v For examplethere is -baasin nomeba (if [you] drink). You may 57. Kana 133 iE at -ba is not apartic1e at al 1 but an inflection of the verb 58. Kashira 134nomu. Grammatically speakinghowever-ba is one of a species ofpartic1e fol1ows conjugated verbs (in is casenome-). 8 PrefaceSince -ba and others of its tribe are not only true particles butexhibit a m tiplicity of usage well worth your attention1 havechosen to include them. A neffort has been made to present theparticles in order of frequency-the more c o m m o nfirst; thelesslater. A nattempt has also been made to group particles bymeaning. Neither the ordering nor the groupinghoweveris entirelyconsistentsince the two systems are n o wand then at loggerheads. Afurther com-plication isthat some of the more basic particles haveusages belonging more properly to an intermediate or advanced levelof study. (All usages at these two levels are marked withasterisks.) Cross references are provided where similarities existbetween dierent particles. This was not done without somemisgivings for while certain particles m a ybe basically alikeeyare usually not true equivalents in the sense at one can replaceanother without even a slight change in meaning or a certainoddness creeping in.Inparticularthere are numerous comparisonsbetween wa and ga because of the frequent interplay between thesetwo particularly pesky particles. For those who wish to test theirproficiency through exercises or who want more sample sentencesseem y Gaikokuin no tama no joshi () published in Tokyo by MusashinoShoin ( ) .FinallyIank Suzuki Shigeyoshi and MichaelBrasemyedi-tors at Kodansha Internationalfor their help. M ysincere thanks also go to Jay Thomaswho did most of the translationebody of the book and 0 r e d m y valuable suggestions. With-outthe cooperation of these threethis book would never have come intobeing. 11l 1!1 AII About Particles141isll11114aubipJP6111141141111911u!10W AlWAI Note: W a hasseveral usagesbut its basic function is to set off a topic (e.g. ofconversation) from the rest of the sentencewhich talks about thetopic. Technicallywa does not indicate case(subjectobjectetcHoweverin practical termsit often (but not always)comes aesubject of the sen-tence. See also wa(#7)and tewa(#47).1.Indicates that information isbeing presented aboutsome-thing that isalready k n o w nor .at has been identified.Asoko ni akai hon ga arimasu ne. Are w a kanji no hon desu. Overthere isa red bookright. It's a kanji book. / See the red book overthere? T hat's a kanji book. Ano daigaku w Yotsuya-eki no chikakuni arimasu. That university-it's near Yotsuya Station. / Thatuniversity is near Yotsuya Station. 2.Indicates a topicwhich is enidentified or explained.Ashita w anichiyobi desu. Asfortomorrowit's Sunday. / Tomorrow is Sunday. Kujira w a sakana de waarimasen. As for the whaleit is not a fish. / T he whale is not afish. Note: If ga replaces wa in these sentencesthe noun which itfollows is no longer being presented as a topic but as the subjectof the predicate (see g #21-2). The switch from topic (wa) todefinite subject (ga) lays stress on the latter. For example: aiJhfW A 11 Asatte w anichiyobi desu ne. ChigaimasuAshitaga nichiyobidesu yo. The day after tomorrow is Sundayisn't it.You're wrongthere. Tomorrow js Sunday. 3.In theconstruction N+ wa N+ g waindicates a topic (efirst noun) about which anpect or quality (thesecond noun) is explained. Zo w ahana ga nagai desu. The elephantits nose is long. / Elephants have long noses. Takemoto-san w aseikaku ga yasashii desu. A sfor Takemotoher personality isgentle./ Takemoto has agentle nature. 6 4.Used to show contrast betweentwo items or ideasboth of which aresignifiedby w a. Kanji wamuzukashii desu ga Nihon-go no bunpo w aamari muzu-kashiku nai-ndesu.Kanjia difficultbut Japanese grammar is not verydifficult.'Hokkaido noyuw a samui desu gaTokyo w a atatakai desu.le Hokkaido winter is coldbut [e] Tokyo [winter] is warm. /It'scold in Hokkaido hthe winterbutwarm in Tokyo- ' 12W A RNote: Insome casesonly one item or idea is explicitly mentioned. Forexamplein the following sentencethe impJication is eperson might goto a cheaper restaurant.Takai karaano resutoran ni w a ikimasen.Because it's expensive1 won't go to at restaurant. I 1 a m notgoing to thatrestaurant because it's too expensive. Note: In itscontrastive functionwa comes after other particles (e.g.ni wa dewa). Two important exceptions are when it replaces ga and 0as inthe next example. Bata 0kaimashita ka. Magarin w akaimashita gabataw akaim.asendeshita. Did you buy some butter? 1 bought somemargarinebut 1 didn't buy y butter.1 1 bought some margarinebut notany butter. 5.In the forms V-te wa iru (first example below) andV-masu base followed by wa and suru (second and thirdexamples)indicates emphasis. See also tewa (#47). ( ) Konpyuta0motte w a imasu mada tsuka (wa) imasen. 1 own a comput [1 do o wna computerlbut 1 haven't used it yet.Ano hito 0 shitte w aimasugaamari hanashita koto w a arimasen. 1 know h i mbut 1 haven'tspoken to h i mmuch. bG A 13 Ocha w anomimashita gajikan ga.nakatta no de shokuji w ashi-masen deshita. 1 had some teabut sincethere wasn't m u c htime1 didn't eat (have a meal). lG A I1.Indicatsubject o fe sentence o rwicertainverbs a n dadjectivesthe object. 1.Indicates existence; used with such verbsas arugozaimasuiruirassharu. Asoko ni watashi no borupen ga arimasuka. Is m y ball-point pen over ere?Asoko ni yubin'okuga arimasu. There's a post 0 ce over ere.50Watashi no kaisha ni waonna no hitoga goju-nin ijo imasu. There are more than y w o m e nmycompany.Note: Wa can replace ga in such sentences when (firstexample below) some-g is being contrasted (my ball-point pensayincontrast to m y pencil) or when (second example) information isbeing presented about a subject already identified. See wa (#1nos.14). 01;"14G AWatashi no borupen w a asoko ni arimasu ka. Is m yball-point pen over there? ( ) Yubin-kyoku wa doko ni arimasu ka.(Yubin-kyoku wa) ekino mae ni am u.W here is e post office?(Thepost 0 is) in froht of the station. 2.Indicates the subject ofthe predicate. Asoko ni sakura ga saite imu. The cherry trees areblooming overere.Ano yama 0mite kudasai . Mada yuki ga nokotteimasu yo. Lookat mountain. There's still snow on it. (Lit.... snowstill rem ns.)Note: W hen making a contrastwa (#1no. 4)n replacega: Asoko ni sakura w a saite imasu gaume w a saite imasen. lecherry trees are blooming over therebut the plum trees are not.G A15 E-tae --3.Indicates the subject of an intransitive verb. To gaakimashita. The door opened. lolli--! ' A m e ga futte iru. !t'sraining. Note: Wa (#1no. 4) can replace ga for contrastivepurposes: A m e w a futte iruyuki w a madaimasen.It's rainingbutit's notsnowingyet.4.Indicates the subject of the sentence when n ewas-yet -unknown information is being presented. KochiragaYamada-san desu. This is Mr. Yamada. (a personal introduction)Kintomodachi no Jakku ga anata ni aitai to itte imashita. Yesterdaym y iend Jack said at he wanted to meet you. Note: Here again wa(#1no. 4) can replace ga for contrastive purposes: Goshkaishimu.Kochira ga Yamada-san dekochira w aSuzuki-san desu. Let m e do theintroductions. This is Mr. Yamadaand is is Ms. Suzuki. .'....16GA.5.Used with interrogative words in questions. D n ohito gakachdesu ka. Which one [person) is the section chief? Dare gaichiban hayaku kimashita ka. W ho came [arrived) first? Note: W a(#1nos. 12) can replace ga ifa topic is being presented: Kacho w adono hito desu ka. The section chie-which one [person) is he? / Which one is esection chief? b) ln asking for a choice: Sushi totenpura dochira ga suki desu ka. W hich do you like bettersushi ortempura? Chugoku-go Nihon-go todochira ga muzukashii desu ka. Which is more difficultChinese dr Japanese? 6.lndicates the subjectof a relative c1ause. Senshu washiga mita eiga w atsumaranakatta.The movie 1 saw last week was boring. G A 17 14Isshukan de watashiga yomu hon wayonsatsu desu. 1 read four books a week [in oneweek]. (Lit.Four books is what 1 read in one week.) Note: No(#171-5) may replace ga in is usage. 7.lndicates the subject of ac1ause ending in ka. Naze kare ga sonna koto 0 yatta kawakarimasen.1 don't know w h y he did that [lit.something like that]. D oshitekanojo ga anna tsumaranai hon 0 yonde iru no kafushigi desu. lt isa mysteto m e[beyond me) w h yshe's reading such a boring book [aboring book like that). 8.lndicates the subject of a subordinate orconditional c1ause when it is dierent from the subject of the mainc1ause. . a) Subordinate c1auses. ( ) Haha ga Nihon ni kuru maeni[watashi waJ kono heya 0 kirei ni soji shinakereba naranai.Before m y mother comes to Japan1 have to make this room nice andc1ean. Hahaga kita kiwatashi wa gochiso 0tsukutta. W hen m y mothercame1 prepared quite a spread. 111HIli--hi'fies--ri1131111%JRth141i1Eli---j ::h;!11hil i1)Hild1 lti''ii'.h11h 19G AYamada-san W a Chugoku-go w awakarimu gaEigo wawakarimasen. Yan aunde ands Chinesebut not English. Haha ga kitaatowatashi wa kaimono ni dekaketa. A m y m oe r m e1 went outshopping. 10. Indicates the object ofverbs of sensation (mieru andkikoeru) as w l las suru in certain uses. b) Conditiona1cIauses.Ano hito ga iku-n dattarawatashi wa ikanai. Ifhe's going1 am not .Koko kara Fuji-san ga miemasu. M t. Fuji can be seen o mhere. I You can see M t. Fuji omhere.Asa no daidokoro w a kohi nokaori ga shimasu. The kitchen smells of coe in the morning. I Inthe morning you can smell coffee [brewing] in the kitchen.Jt14ifftT Anata ga so iu naranatto 0tabete mimasu. Ifyou say so[ifyou recommend itinsistetc.JI'll t some fer-mented beans. I Koko kara Fuji-san w amiemasu ganoboru hito no sugaw amJemasen.Younsee M t. Fio m herebut not the figures of the people climbingit.Note: Wa (#1no. 4)n replace ga for contrast: 11.Indicates theobject of verbs and adjectivesof necessity (hitsuyo d iru).Watashiwa okane ga iru. 1 need money.9.Indicates the object of VErbs ofabHity(ddim karu and the potential forms ofverbs). Abe-san gorufugadekimu. Abe can play [lit . doJ goIf. aOkada-san wa piano gahikemasu. Okada can play the piano. Yamada-san wa Chugoku-go gawakarimasu. Yamada understands Chinese. Note: Wa (#1no. 4)n replacega to create a contrast:20G A 8Kotsu no anzen no tamekibishiikisoku ga hitsuyo desu. Strict rules are needed for traffic safety.Note:"'(#1no. 4) replaces ga when a contrast is being made: Watashiwqokane w airu gamono w airanai.1 need moneybut 1 don't needthings. 12.Indicates the object ofadjectives ofdesire(1105hiiande-tai form ofverbs). Compare the use of 0(#18no. 5) with e -garuand -taiformsofverbs. Jikan okane ga hoshii. 1 want time and money.Tsumetai mono ga nomitai. 1 want something cold to drink. Note: Wa(#1no. 4)replaces ga when a contrast is being made: Tsumetai mono wanomitai gaatatakai mono w airimasen. I'd like to drink somethingcoldbut not anything hot.G A 21 13. Indicates the object ofverbsand adjectives of emotion (suki d kirai daureshii kanashiikoishinpai suruetc.). Compare the use ofo (#18no. 5) wiverbs in the-iand -garu form5. Watashi wa Motsuaruto ga daisuki desu.1 loveMozart. Jon-san wa natto ga kirai desu. John doesn't like fermentedsoybeans. Aki ni naru to taiga shinpai desu. In the falltyphoonsare a worry [a problem]. Hanako wa konna subarashii purezenokureta-n desu yo. Sono kimochi ga ureshii desu. Hanako gave m ethiswonderful present. I'm50 pleased by her thoughtfnlness. Note: Wa(#1no. 4) can besubstituted for ga to create a contrast:letJimu-sanwa nattw akirai da gasurume w adaisuki desu.Jimdoesn't likefermented soybeansbut he loves dried cuttlefi5h." . . . "'.'iG AA214. Indicates the object of adjectives of abty (jozu naheta na kuina kiyo na etc.). Atarashii shushwahaikugaiZU dasdesu. The n e wprime minister is said to be good at haiku. 2.Indicates at a givensubject has two different qualities: but aloughSakura no hana kireida gakaori ga nai. Cherry blossoms a prettybut they have nofragrance. - fU4zz:; gogt ak u kui Fura1 go m o/; t G o mOg. :awaisg' O o d a tlang ua ge s; shecansipea k b oth Prench andItalian. Kono eiga wa omoshiroi gl nagasugimasu ne. This movie isinterestingbut it's just too long. Note: Wa (#1no. 4) replaces gawhen a contrast is intended:3.Connects two clauses with.out anyadversative implication (cf. 11-1above): and." }Tani-san wa atamagaii Yoko-san m oii desu. Tani is intelligentand so is Yokota. IL Us e dbetween dauses( d sometimes at the e n dofsentences)usuallywith the m en gbut."1.usedbetweentwoclausestoindicatedlattheYEareopposedirlmeaning (cf . II3below): buta1out::'n;;tmhmi-n d 5ku na rimaLatelye d aare w a r mbut the nidlts have urned cold./It's warmduringthe daytime these daysbut cold atnight-oMtdshi noie Kura sdpdw u dikai-n de5149aeb-wu t6i-F1da---T h n u p m ket is cl to m yhousebut the train tion-hr-KinFuji-san 0hajimete mimashita gakireideshita. 1 s a w Mt. Fifor the first time yesterdayand it wasbeautifuI. 1iiilu141Jvin-HJrtt1kt-ttil--1111!il A U m M i s p u s Mhaiku w aj .iZU desiwamauThenewnrim so:0pruneml4.Indicates aprelimin yremark. Note: This type of sentence is 0 en terminatedafter ga at which point the interlocutorsensing what it is tofollowtakes up the thread of conversation. WatashiHirono tomoshimasu gagoshujin wa irasshaimasu ka. . M y name is Hirono. Isyour husband home? Senjitsu onegai shita koto desu gado narimashitadesho ka. About the request 1 made severa1 days agoh o whas itturned out [has there been any progress]? 24G A4....."'5.Used atthe end ofthe sentence. Note: T hese usages are essentially thesarne as those in 11-4aboveexcept the second clause isn't statedoutright. (Words in brackets show only one of various imaginablecontexts.) a) Implies an unstated meaning at isin contrast to theone stated: WellyesbutOssharu koto wa mottomo desu ga .W hat yousayis quite rightbut [it's di1t to imp1ement now]. b) Softens arefusal: lamsoybut ..." ..Bucho wa ima kaigi-chu de gozaimasu ga. ..The division chief is in a meeting n o w'" [so you'll have to waitto see him]. 6.W hen ed at the end of a sentence or dause andpreceded by ii indicates e speaker wants the event to come out asstated. Context determiries whether orno! the s hisactuallyreallzable: it would be nice if; 'it would have bn nice if." Rainengaikoku e k dekiru to iigadame no yo desu. It would be nice if 1cou1d make a trip abroad next yearbut itseems ough 1 cah't [seemsimpossible]. ..Hayaku haru ga kuru ii-n daga... It would be nice ifspring came soon. / 1 hope spring comes soon. G A 25 ..Kanojo gadokushin da iindaga 1 hope she issingle. / (Orknowing that sheisnot) 1 wish she were single. 7.Usedidiomaticallyaftercontrastiveverbsoradjectives: whether or not." a)After the -o forms of contrastive verbs or adjectives. Watashi watasukaro ga shinga kamaimasen. 1 don't care whether 1 live [lit . am saved] or die. Atsukard ga samukaro ga-watashi wa dilijobu desu.I'mall right [it doesQ't bother me] whether it's hot or cold. b) Ae -o and -mai forms of the same verb. Watashi ga iko ga ikumai gaanata ni wa kankei nai koto desu. W hether 1 go or not hasnathingto do with you [is not your cOs-cern]. UFOTanaka-san gashinjiyo ga shinjimai gaboku wa hakkiri yufdo mimashita. W hetherTanaka believes it or not1 dearly saw a UFO. 26M O8.Usedeexpression V + ga hayai ka: as soon asno sooner had." Mado 0 akeruga hayai kaneko ga kita.N o sooner had the windowbeen opened th thecat jumped in. I As soon as 1 opened the window the cat jumped in.Yoko ni naru ga hayai kasugu nemutte shimatta. N o sooner had 1lain down th 1fe11 asleep. I 1 f11 asleep as soon as m y head hitthe pillow. MOj Note: See also te mo (-de mo)#4and de mo#5.1.Indicates that two words arc:: equal in weight:alsotoo." Kore wasakura desu. Kore m o sakura desu. This is a cherry tree. This is acherry treetoo. Poru-san wa Nihon-go 0benkyo shite imasu.Nanshii-san m oNihon-go 0benkyo shite imu. Paul is studyingJapanese. Nancy isalso studying Japanese. M O 21 2.Showing similarnouns in parallel construction: andas w eUbo"Watashi no kaisha niwaAmerikajin m o Chugokujin m o ima'14. There are both A mericansand Chinese in m y company.Hanako-san wasushi m o tenpura m o sukidesu yo.Hanako likes both sushi and tempura. 3.Indicates anaddition:as well asin addition." Kore wa kuro desu gashiroi kutsu mo arimasu yo.These are blackbut w ehave white shoes as well. Nihonde wa kodomoJcede naku otona m o manga 0 yon-de im asu. In Japannotonly children read comic booksbut adults as w ell.4.Shows emphasisor absence of doubt concerning a question of timequantityetc.: anynumber of timesAno eiga wa nando m o mimashita. 1 have seen thatmovie any number of times. Kono resutoran waitsu m o kondeimasu.This restaurant is always crowded. 28M O5.Indicates totalnegation concerningquality or quantity (accompanied by a negativeverb): nOn oing."Nani m o arimasen g meshiagattekudasai. W e havenothing special to offerbut please help yourself. (Lit . There isnothirigbut please eat [a conventional phrase].) Ano heya ni wadarem o imasen yo. There is no one in that room. 6.T oemphasize theextent of a number: ofas much ( m y)as. 50Sumisu-san wakanji 0gosen m o shitte imasu. Mr. Smith knows all of five thousand kanji.190Sonoapano yachin waikkagetsu m o suru so desu. The rent for atapartment is said to be high as 900000. 7.Indicates approximation(by showing an approximate upplimit) regarding number or quantity:aroundup to." 1Ichi-jikan m o arebahoteru kara kuko e ikemasu. Ifyou have as m u c has an houryou can get o m the hotel to theairport. / Y ou can get m the hotel to the airport inside an hour[in an hour or so]. 5Goman-en m o dasebaii kamera ga kaemasu yo. -T E M O (O E M O ) 29 If you spend up to 50000you can get a goodcamera. / You can buya good camera for50000. 1T E M O (-DEMO) I()Note: Here we are concerned with mo in combinatiori with the-te(-de) form ofverbs and the -kuteform of adjectives. See also mo(#3) and de mo (#5). 1.Even ifeven ough."Ashita tenki ga warukute modoraibu ni ikimasho. Everi ifthe weather is bad tomorrowlet's gofor a drlve. / Let's go for a drive tomorrow even if the weather' sbad. Tomodachi ga tsukutte kureta no deamari oishiku nakute m o'oriwa zenbu tabemashita yo. -Since a iend prepared the food [forme]1 ate everythingeven though it didn't taste very good. 2.Afterverbsused in counction with interrogatives for empha-sis: no matterwhere (whowhatetc.)." Takeda-san waikura nonde m o yowanai-n desuyo. N o matter h o w m u c hTakeda drinkshe doesn't get drunk. 30DE M OOhanami no ki wadoko e itte m o hito de ippai da. Duringflower-viewing timethere are crowds of people wherever yougo.3.Emphasizes an approximate limit: at the most." 56Sono kameranaratakakute m o go-man-en kurai desho. At the m oat camera willcost around 50000. (Lit . That cameraeven ifit's expensivewill beabout 50000.) 3Ano shibai wa nagakute m o san-jikan de owarimasuyo. That play willlast three hours at the m o st.D E M O I Note: InaII usages except no. 6de mo can be replaced by the more informaldatte (not includedis book). See also mo#3 d -te mo (-de mo)#4.1.Useda.er nouns to emphasize a hypothetical: eveneven if."Tsumaranai kaigi de m o shigoto desu kara denakereba narimasen.Even if it's a boring meetingyou have to atlend since it's [partof]the job. / Y ou have to attend even the boring meetings sinceit's [part of]ejob.D E M O 31 Kirai na tabemono de m okar :la niyokereba tabeta ho ga ji desu ne. Even if it's food you dislikeyoushould eat it if it's good for your health. / You should eat evenfood you dislikeif it's good for your heal.2.Used after nouns foremphasis: evenSono shigoto wa watashi de m o dekimashita karaanatanara sugu dekimasu yo. Since even 1 was able to do that workyouwill be able to do it immediately. / If 1 can do ityou should beable to do it [handle that job] with ease. Dobutsu de m o ningen nokokoro ga wakarimasu. Even animals canunderstand the human heart.3.Used after an interrotive word for positive emphasis:any-(onewhereetc.)." Jon-san waNihon-ryori nara nan de m otabemasu. John will eat any [kind of] Japanese food. Watashi wayorudattara itsu de m o ii desu yo. As long as it's at nightany time isall right for me. / Any time at night lewith me. . .32D E M O4.Used in the form donna demo: whatever." fYoroppa e ittaradonnabijutsukan de m o mite mitai. IfI go to EuropeI'll want to swhatever museums [1 can]. Eigo no dekuru hito naradonna hito de m okamaimasen.As long as it's someone w h ocan speak E ng1ishitdoesn't matter w h oit is. / Anyone w h ocan speak E ng1ish willdo. 5.Used with two or more nouns which serve as examples ofalarger list:either or (and others of a similar nature)."Matsumoto-san wa undo-shinkei ga ii no detenisu de m ogorude m odekimasu yo. Given Matsumoto's good reflexeshe can play eithertennis or golf [or any other sport]. Kataoka-san wagaikoku-go ni kymi 0motte iru karaFuransu-go de m o Chugoku-go de m o-;Sugu oboeteshimauSince Kataoka isinterested in foreign languageshe can easilypick up either French or Chinese [or any other lan age].6.Indicatesone possibility: ... or something." Ea de ino mi ni ikimasen ka.H ow about going to see a movie or something? Rekodo de m o kikimashoka. Shall w e listen to a record or something? TO IT O 33 1.Followsnouns; indi tessuchmeand"andwi" d sets off names.1.Joins.nounsusually two orree (but not phrases and clauses): and."Note: Contrast with ya (#8no. 1). Aran-san to POT'lan wa Furansuindesu. Alain and Paul are French. Shiroi yuri to akai bara no hana0kaimash. Let's buysome white lilies and red roses. 2.Indicates acomparison or contrast:and'? or (when a choice is asked for) or."Note: Inis usagemust follow each of the nouns. Kono kaisha to sonokaisha de washihon-kin ga chigaimasu. This company and that companyhave d.ifferent amounts of pi.34T ORingo to mikan to dochira ga kidesu ka. W hich do you like betterapples or mandarin oranges? 3.TogetherwithShacho wa buch shokuji 0 shite imu. The companypresident is eating out with the division manager. Ashita konomondai ni tsuitesensei to hanasu tsumori desu. Tomorrow 1 intend todiscuss is problem wi m y teacher [instructordoctorlawyeretc.).dicates a change or result (commonly used in the phrasenarul . .Note: N i(#13no. 8) is aISO used in ispa m;is more formal and iscom-monly used in writing.Orinpikku no kaikai-shiki no hi natta.Theday of the opening ceremony of the Olympics arrived. (Lit . Itbecame the day of the opening ceremony of the Olympics.) 1oKotoshino kaigai-ryokosha waissen-man-nin natta.[The number of] overseastravelers is year reached ten million. T O 3S 5. Following anexpression of quantityreinforces the negative idea of the sentence:(not) as much as." 2 Ano yama ni noboru ni waniikan kakarimasen.Itwon't take as long as [won't take even) two hours to climblountain.2 Ano kaisha to wa nido to torihiki 0 shitaku nai. 1 don'twant to have dealings with company ever again.(Lit . 1 don't wantto have dealings with that company two times [because I've dealtwith them once already and know what they're like).) 11. U sedafter onomatopoeic adverbsor follows a w o r d dauseor sentence a nd precedes such verbsas i kiku d omou to indicate w h a t m e o n es a idkedoughtetc. 1.Indicates what someone saidorderedaskedetc.Yamamoto-san gaato de denwa suru to osshaimashita. Yamamoto saidthat she would phone later. Haha ga sensei ni yoroshiku to m shiteorimashita. Mother said to give her regards to you (who are m yteacherdoc-toretc.). 9Watanabe nga kuji made ni jimu-sho ni kuru yoniitte imashita. Watanabe said that you should come to his officeby nine o'clock. / Watanabe asked that you come to the office bynine o'clock. 36T O2.Indicates what someone thinks or feels.Rainen waAmerika e ikto kangaete imasu. I'mthinking of going to theUnited States next year. 9 10 Densha wa kuji ni deru omoimashitagajuji deshita. 1 thought the train would leave at nine o'clockbut[it leat] ten. / O r1 thought the train was going to leave [wasscheduled to leave] at nine o'clockbut it turned out to be ten.3.Indicates the name of somethingabout which an explanation foUows;usually used when the name alone would not be under-stood. Alwaysused in the form to iu (or some variation): (whowhich) iscaUedknown as." o"Sekai" to iu zasshi 0 shitte imasu ka. D o youknow the magazine Sekat? Buru Sukaizu to iu hoteru nitomarimashita. 1 stayed at a hotel caUed Blue Skies. MazuTanaka toiu bucho ni shorui 0moratte kudasai. First of aUget the documentsfrom a section manager named Tanaka. 4.Used after onomatopoeicadverbs. Ogawa ga sarasara tomichi no soba 0 nagarete i. Asparkling brook flowed alongside the road. Hoshi ga kirakira tokagayaite imasu. The stars are twinkling. 1 0 37 . Follows verbs an dadjectives to f o r ma conditional: ifunlesswhether or not."1.Indicates that a second action foUows unediately upon the actionpreceding it;often used wi sugu (immediatelyright away): as soonasNote: -Tara (#35no. 5) d nari (#46no. 3) can be used here withmuch amemeg.Asa okiru to sugukaten 0 akemasu. As soon as 1 get upin the morning1 open the curtains. Kinwa kaisha no shigoto ga owarutomassugu ie ni kaetta. Yesterdayas soon as work was over1 wenthome. / 1 went straight home after work yesterday. 38TO32.Indicates the inevitability of a second action following theone preceding it: whenas.' Nihon de wa haru ni naru to sakura gasakimu. W hen spring comes in Japanthe chertrees bloom. / In Japanecherry trees bloom with the coming of spring. Kuruma ga oku narukotsu-jikolemasu.As (the number of) carscreasese(incidence of)tracaccidentsrises. / The more cars there arethe more caccidentsoccur.Fu-keiki ni naru shitsugyo-shalemasu.W hen there is arecessionthe number of jobless increases. 3.Indicates ahypothetical condition: ifunless." Note: Ba(#34no.l)and tara(#35no. 1) have much the same meaning. Compare also -ba (#34no. 2).Yamada-san ga konaikaigi ga hajimeraremasen:IfYamada doesn'tcomethe meeting can't be started. / W e can't start the meetingunless Yamada comes. Ashitatenki ga ii to yakyu ga dekimasuIf theweather is good tomorrowwe can play baseball. T O 39 4.Indicatesthat something has been leamed as a result of a certnaction:whenafteras a result of." Note: -Tara (#35no. 4) can also be usedwith this meg. Ginko e iku tom o shimatte iW hen 1 went to thebank[1 found] it was already closed. Koban de michi 0 kiku tosonokaisha wa sugu mitsukatta. Aerasking the wayat a police box1 found[located] the comp Yright away. 5.U dwitwoverbs (eiertwo differentverbs ending in -yol-o or the same verb peatedthe first ending in-yol-othe second in enegative - m0; indicates a lack of concernover which of the W o events occurs:whether or (not)." " 'En" gatsuyoku nayowakunaro watashi no seikatsu ni wa kankei arimen.Whether the yen ge stronger 0 1' grows weaker [rises orfalls).ithasnoeect on m y [daily ]life. Kanojo ga hitori de pati nii . iku maitohi kamaimen.1 don't care whether she goes to epartyalone or not. 40T O W AT O W A I 1.Indicates a word or plebeingdefinedor for which a defi-Mtion is being asked. U NtV kokuren nokoto desu. U N "refers to the United Nations. Rida no joken to wanan desho ka. W hat are the prerequisites ofleadership? 2. Usedbetween two clauses at are opposed in mean.g; the first clauserepresents a concession to the second (usually in eform to wa ie):ougheven ough."Seioshin'yo shite inai w a sei.noyarikani shitaganai ke ni wa ikanai .Even ough you don't trust the governmentyou[still] have to adhere to Y s mmay npt trust the gov-ernmentbut youmust still adhere to its ways of doing things. Haru w a ie madasamui. Even ough it's springits still cold. hY A 41 1.Joins nounsto indicate a non-exhaustive list of items: such gs asdand."Note:Ya implies that the items stated are taken as examplesfrom a larger group of items. In contrast( #611) implies that theitems stated are the only ones under consideration.Ya is oftencombined with nado (and such")reinforcing its basic meaning. Teburuno ue niosushi ya yakitori ya tenpura nado ga arimasu. O n thetablethere are such things as sushiyakitod tempura. Watashi no heyani wakonpyuta ya sutereo ga oite arimasu. In m y room there is acomputera stereoand such. *2. In the idiomatic expression ya ina ya(following a verb root): soon asno sooner had." .Eki .N o soonerhad 1 arrived at the station an the train left. Ofuro ni hairu yaina yadenwa ga natN o sooner had 1 gotten into the bath an thephone rang. sT O K A T O K A I1.Joins nounsverbs (clauses)oradjectives to indicate several representative items oni a muchlarger possible listiilg: among other thingssuch ings as." Note:When used with nounskahas the same meaning as ya (#8no. 1) but ismore informal. See also ka (#11II-4). Kino depato deseta to kakutsu to ka 0 katta. Yesterday 1 bought a sweatershoesand someother ings at edepartment store. Yasumi ni wajogingu 0 suru tokatenisu 0 suru kashite imu. W hen l'm owork1 do things likejogging and playing tennis. 2. Used after pairs of words ofopposite meaningindicating uncertainty. Kawaguchi-san waano ginkoni tsumeru to ka tsutomenai itte imashita gado narimashita ka.Kawaguchi was saying that he' d work for that bank and then that hewouldn't. W hatever happened? Ano hito wa sonoki niyotteshogaomoshiroi to ka omoshiroku nai to ka iu no dedochira nano ka wakarimasen. Depending on which day it isshe says she likesher work or she doesn't like itso 1 don't know whether she does ornot. NA l N A D O I Note: Nanka is informal equivalentand na.zo andnan%o more CormoJequivalents. 1.Indicates that a series of itemsisnon-exhaustivei often usedwith ya (#8no. 1): etc.and so forth."Sono hen ni wa resuran ya disuko ya eiga-kan nado ga arimasu. Thereare restaurantsdiscosmovie theatersand so forth around there [inthat area] .Watashi wa mikan ya ringo ya banana nadokudamono naranan de m osuki desu. 1 like any kind ofuit: mandarinorangesapplesbananas. 2.Indicates a tentative suggestion: orsomething (somewhere etc.).' Rais no 1oka wa Hakone niido dldesuka. H o w about some place like Hakone for next week's trip? / H owwould Hakone be for the trip next week? Purezento 0 kau narashinju no burochi nanka ii-n ja nai-n desu ka. If you're going tobuy a presentwouldn't something like a pearl brooch be all right? /If you're going to buy a presenta pearl broochor something likethatmight be nice. 444N A D O3.Expresses humbleness: such asthelikes of." Watashi nadosonna muzukashiishiken niwa temo gokakudeki-masen.Someone like m ecould never pass a difficult examinationlike at. 1 There' s no way that 1 [the likes of me] could ps suchadiculttest.Hashimoto-sensei no gokyodai chigattewatashi no kyodainazo waatama ga warui mono bakari desu. Unlike ProfessorHashimoto's brother and sistersnone of m ybrothers and sisterssuchas they areis very bright.*4. Used to emphasize the negative pectof the situationespe-d a1ly in a belittling manner: yone likeelikesof."Tanaka-san nado w a emo shacho ni wa narenai.There's nowayyonee T aka [telikes ofTana]could become president of the compy.Anohnkaseno ni dete m odame desu yo. It's no use for someone likehim to run for election. 5.Emphasizes the impossibi1ity of thesituation: suchany-thing like." Sonna takai mono nazoitadaku wakeni wa ikimasen. 1 could never ac pt such an expensive thing ().oIenankatotemo kaenai. 1 could never buy anything like a house.6.After verbs and adjectives: something to eectthat."K A 45Yamamoto-san ga sono konsato ga temo yokatta nado itt imashita yo.Yamamoto was saying that the concert was quite good [and such gs]./ Yamamoto was saying something about the concert being very good.Kare wa sono shigoto 0 jibun ga yatta nado to itte i.He's sayingsuch things as it was he that did that w ork. / He' saying at hewas the one w h odid that job. 1.Indicates a question; found at thee n d o f a sentence. 1. Indicates a simple question. Kore dare nokasa desu ka.W hose umbrella is is?Ashita no pati ni ikimasu ka.Are you going to epaytomorrow?46K A2.Indicates an inquiry aboutsomeone's feelings or intentions or a suggestion about something:((howabout.)) Eiga 0mi ni ikimasen ka. H o w about going to see amovie? Sato-san ni kiite mitara do desu ka. H o w about asking5at3.Indicates a rhetorical question.Konna ni kirei na tokorogahoka ni aru daro ka. ls thereanother place as lovely this? / Where else could you find a place as lovely as this? Sonna waruihito ga iru mono desu ka. Are there people around as bad [awful] asat?4.Indicates anger or censure: 50you ...?)) oMata kyo m ookuretekita-n desu ka. 50 you're late again today? Mada kono shigoo shiteinai-n desu ka. You haven't done [finished] this work yet? q.Indicates at someone is talking to him-orherself.Kyowageuyobika.Today's Mondayis it? Sorosoro natsu m oowarika.K A 47 50 summer's almost overhuh? / Wellit looks like summer'almost over. 11. Indicates a choicedoubtuncertainty; found withlnasentence. 1.Indicates a choice: orwhether or not."Kohi ka kocha kanomitai desu ne.l'd sure like to drink some coor tea. / 50mecoeortea w odbe nicewouldn't it.Ryoko ni iku ka ikanai ka madakimete imasen. 1 stiU haven't decided wJietnerTm going to-take atrip or not. Hirota-san wa osake ga nomeru ka do ka kiite mimashd.Let's ask Hirota whether he drinks [alcohoHc beverases] or not.Kaze 0 hiita no ka m aga itai-n desu.1 wonder ifI've caught acold-myh d hts. 1I'VI1aybe I've caught a cold.48K AShiken ga aru nokaminna toshokan de benky shite imasu yO. 1 wonder if there's atest- everyone's studying at the library. 3.Used wi aninterrogative wordindicating such meanings somethinganything;someoneanyone." Dare ka Yamada-san no denwa-banglo shitte imasu ka.Does anyone knowYamada's telephone number? Nani ka tsumetai mono ganomitai. 1 want to drink someing cold. / l'd like something cold todrink. 4.Following other particleslindicates uncertainty or doubt.See aIso ka (#9). Yamadasan ka iu hikara denwa ga arimashita. Therewas a call from someone called Yamada or something or oer.Kanojowadepato de ka butikku de ka dochira ka de kaimono 0shitai itteimashita. She said she wanted to do some shoppingat a departmentstore or aboutique 1kitwas.D E 49 5.In the idiomatic expression ka...-nai uchi ni : hardly had no sooner had." Eki ni tsuku katsukanai uchi ni densha ga ki. 1 had hardly arrived at the stationwhen the train came. Ofuro ni hairu ka 1ranai uchi ni denwa ga na.No sooner had 1 gotten into the bath an ephoner g.D E / 1.Indicatesthe location of an action: atin." Note: Contrast with ni (#13no.2). Kino Ginza no resutoran de bangohan 0tabemashita. Yesterday 1had dinner at a restaurant in Ginza. Watashi no tomodachiwatoshokan de hon 0 yonde imasu. M yiend [a iend of mine] isreading a book in the libra2.Indicates a means or implement:bywi"Watashi wa Nihon etie de kimashita. 1 came to Japan byboat.450D EBorupen de kaite kusai.Please write wia ball-point pen.3.Indicates materials used: offromwiKono keki watamago sato detsukurimasu. This cake is made of eggs and sugar. M ushiNihoninwaki kami de tsukutta ie ni sunde imashita. Long agothe Japaneselived in houses made ofwood and paper. Note: Kara may replace de inthis usage except when the raw materiaI isunmistakably evident ( wilpaperwdgIassclothsng and leather) in which case de must be used.Compare kara (#1516).4.Indicatesegrst (largestsmallestleastoldestnewestetc.) Sekai de ichiban takai yama wa nandesu ka. W hatis e highest niountain in the w or1d? Kore wa konomura de ichibanrui otera desu. This is the oldest temple in thevillage. 5.Indi tes amount and scope: M .espace (ne)ofinfor1Konohon ichiikan de yomemasu yo. Y o ucan read this book inan hour. 10Ano terebi waju-man-en de kaeru. Y o ucan buy that T Vset for 100000. D E 51 '6.Indicates the m o d eor condition of theagent of an action (not to be confused with the subject).1Yamada-san wa apani hitori de sunde imasu. Yamada lives in anapartment by himself. KazokuU de Hawai e ryokshita. 1 made a tripto Hawaii with the whole family. 7.Indicates time or age: whenatthe age of." Note: Compare ni (#13no. 3). 25Ano shijin wanijugo-saide shinda. lat poet died at the age of twenty-five.50Senso ga owatte rainen de goju-nen ni naru.Next year will be theieyear since the war ended. 8.Indicates the reason for something:because of." Byoki de ryoko ni ikenakatta. Because 1 was sick1couldn't go o nthe trip. ;2NI Tadedenshaga m a.The train stopped onaccount of the typhoon. II[ NI I1.Indicates where a person or thingis: inaton." a) Indicates a concrete place. Yamada-sensei waimatoshokan ni irasshaimu. Professor Yamada is in e library now.Denwacho wa tsukue no ue ni arimasu. The phone book is on the desk.b) Indicates an abstract place. Kacho wa ima kaini shusseki shiteimasu. The section chief is n o w in conference. Kare wa ima de moengeki-kai ni kunrin shite imasu. Even n o w he rules over[dominates] the theatrical world. NJ5' 2.Indicates the location ofan action: inat." Note: In contrast to this use of n de (#12no. 1)is used to indicate a one-time or short-term action. a)Used withcertain non-action" verbswhich imply that the subject ispermanently located in the place of action. Yamadasan wagenzaiYotsuya ni sunde imasu. Yamada lives in Y otsuya at present.Terada-san wa Shinjuku no ginko ni tsutomete imasu. Terada works(is working) at a bank in Shiuku.Note: T he verbs hataraku andshigoto 0 suru (to work) are preceded by de. b) Used with verbs atindicate that an action has taken (or is to take) place and .!!resulting condition is(or will be) static. lelast sentenceexemplifies the parenthetical definition. Ano isu ni suwatte hon 0yonde iru hito wadare desu ka. -W h o is e persori sitting at chairaild reading a book? Yama no ue ni yuki ga tsumotte imasu ne. Snowis piled up on top of the mountainisn't it. / There is snow on themountaintopisn't there. Sumimasen gakabe ni kakatte iru watashi nokoto 0totte kure-masu ka. Excuse m ebut would you get m y coathanging on the w all? 54NI Shinbun wa tsukue no ue ni oite kudasai.Please put enewspaper on the desk. 3.Indicates time: atonin;everyper." a) Indicates the specictime at which something takesplace. 9 Kaisha wa kuji ni hajimarimasu. Work [the 0 ] begins atnine o'clock. Getsuyobi ni ka e ikimasu. I'mgoing to Osaka onMonday. b) Indicates the interval of time during which somethingtakes place. 1 1Isshukan ni ichido tenisu 0 shimasu. 1 play tennisonce a week. 30Kono basu wa sanjippun oki ni kimasu. This bus comeseveryirty minutes.4. Indicates movement from a larger to a smallerplace (e.g. from a train platform into a trainor from the lay worldinto areligious organization): ininto." Note: Contrast with0(#18no. 6).a) Indicates movement from larger to smaller physicalplace.Tokyoeki no mae de basu ni notte kudasai. Please board thebus in ont ofTokyo station. oftsu ni haittaratabako wa suwanai dekudasai. NI55 Please don't smoke aer entering the office. / Pleasedon't smoke inside e oce.b) Indicates movement o m larger tosmaller abstract place. Kyonen Watanabe-san wa rekishi-gakkai nihaitta. Last year Watartabe joined a historical society. Anata waboku no4me no naka ni nando m odete kimashita. You have appeared my dreams any number of times. 5.Indicates movement toward a place:to."Note: E (#14no. 1) can a1so be used here. America ni ikitai. 1want to go to A merica. o]on-san wa ginko ni ikimashita yo.Johnwent to the bankyou know. 56NI 6. Indicates the object of anaction: to. Note: II1 this usagee may not be used.a) Used after anoun. le distinction between is usage and at in no. 5 is at herethe noun implies an action (e.g.going shoppingseeing Kabi).Kaimononi ikimasu.I'mgoing shopping. Ashita w akabuki ni iku tsumori desu.1 plan to go to [see] Kabuki tomorrow. b) Usedaer the base of a-masu verb. M o ohiru desu ka shokuji 0 shi ni ikimasen ka.Sinceit's noon alreadyshall w ego to eat lunch? Kinoshita-san watomodachi 0 mukae ni NaT madedekakemhitlKinoshita went out toNarita [Aiort] to meet [pick up] aiend.7.Indicates the recipient ofan action (in Englishequivalent to the indirect object):too mNote:W hen the meaning is to>>e may replace nij when the meaningiso m" kara may replace ni. Kurisumasu ni wa tomodachi ni purezento0 ageru. W e give presents to our iends at Christmas.Kurisumasu nitomodachi ni purezeno moratta.1 received a present from m yiend atChristmas.Kino Furansu ni iru Nanshi ni tegami 0 dashiteageta.Yesterday 1 sent a letter to Nancy France.8.Indicates theresult of a change or an impending change. Jon-san wa daigaku 0sotsugyo shiteisha ni na.John graduated o m university and became adoctor. 3Kono keki 0mittsu ni wakete kudt.Please divide is cakeinto three [parts]. Watanabe-san wa shigoto no shisugi de byoki ninatta. Watanabe become ill from overwork. NI57 9. Indicates acondition already i Il existence (usually followed by natte iru andequivalent to the English b e ")Kono tatemono no m waga loshiu ninatte im u. The right side of this building is a dassroom. Hoteruno mae ga bichi ni natte imasu. In ont of the hotel is a beach.(Lit.The front of the hotel isabeach.)58NI 10. Indicates the agentof a veverb (eperson or thing per-.. forrning the action): by."Densha no naka desuri ni okane 0 torateta. M y money was ten by apickpocket in the tra.Ie ni kaeru tochu de ame ni furareta. O n m yway home 1 got rained on. (Lit . 1 was fallen on by thern.)11.Indicates the person(s) made to do something in a causativesentence. Sensei wa gakusei ni kanji 0 kakasemashita. The teacherhad the students write kanji. Kodomotachi ni hon 0 yomaseru koto watotemo taisetsu da. It is veimportant to have children read books.12. Indicates the agent of a causative-passive verb (e personorthing performing the action): byGakusei wa sensei ni kanji 0kakasaremashita. The students were made to write kanji by theteacher. Watashi wa kodomo no tokihaha ni kirai na mono motabesaseraremashita. W h e n1 was a child1 was made to eat eventhings 1 disliked by m y mother (my mother made m e eat food 1didn't like). NI59 13.Joins nouns (usually three or more): and."Note:lis usage of ni is equivalent to(#6I1 ) but is more commonlyfound in writing. 50no.nishsekishita hito w Chugoku-jinniKankokujin n Nihon-jin da.The people attending the conferencewere ChineseKoreansand Japanese. Pati no nomimono waNihon-shuniuisuki niwain deshita. The drinks [available] at the party weresakwhiskeyand wine. 14.Indicates a pair of people or things thatare commonly men-tioned together: and." Romeo ni Jurietto. Romeoand J uliet.Fuji-san ni geisha. M t. Fiand geisha (a hackneyedphrase in reference to Japan). 15.Indicates the basis on whichormeans by whichan action takes place (usually used with the verbs mozuku (to be based on) and yoru (owing to). oAno eiga wa yumei nashoseu ni motozuite tsukuraremhi.That movie was [made] based on afamous noveJ .ETerebinokyu ni yotte gaikoku no yosu ga yoku wakaruyo ni natta. lankstoespread [owing to the spread] of telesionwe[now] have a better understanding of conditions in foreigncountries. Note: In both of the ages belowni may rep1ace Eexceptwhen e is fo1-10wed by no (as in the 1ast sentence of no. 2)1.Indicates a direction or goalor a destination toward which one ismoving or at which one has arrived: toItsu Kyoto e ikimasu ka. When are you going to Kyoto? Taniguchi-san wa kino Amerika eshuppatsu shimashita. Taniguchi left for the United Statesyesterday. 6 Kono hikoki warokuji ni Narita kuko e tochakushimashita. This airplane arrived at Narita Airpo at six 0' clock.2.Indicates the recipient oftion (in Englishequivalent to theindirect object): toGaikoku ni iru tomodachi e tegami 0 kaita. 1wrote a letter to aiend abroad. Yugata Kawada-san e denwa 0kaketagainakatta. 1 telephoned Kawada in the eveningbut he wasn'tthere.Kawadasan e no denwa ga atta no wa nanji deshita ka. W hat tIme did that phone call come for Kawada? RAI 1. Follows n o u n sandthe -teform ofverbs: o m. "KARA61l. A er nounsindicates the time atwhich something begins: fromat." 95 Ginko wa kuji kara aite imasu.Banks are open from nine o'clock. / BS open at nine. 15 4 Nih -go.no kurasu waichiji kata yoji rrtade desu.Japanese class lasts o mone to four 0' clock. 2.After nounsindicates the place o m whichsomething begins:fromat." 5 Marason wa koko kara shuppatsu shimasu.le marathon starts [from] here. K A R A5 Shacho wa Pari karahiko-ki de Supein e ikumasu. Thecomp y president will go from Paristo Spain by plane. . C ertain idiomatic usages in which figurativereferences to place aremade. 5 Shinbun 0 sumi kara sumi made yonda.1 read the newspaper o m beginning to end. to corner.) 5 Onna nohito no m ekara mirebaNihon ni wa mada sabetsu ga takusan aru. Froma woman's viewpointthere is sta lot o( discrimination in Japan.(Lit.Looking from a woman's eyes )4. After .e -te form ofverbsindicates that an action begins immediatelyafter eprevious oneends: aer."5 K owatashi wa shigotga owatte kara kaimonooshimashita. Yesterday 1 went shopping aer finishing work. 5 Ashitano yorushokuji 0 shite kara eiga 0mimasen ka. H o w about seeing amovie tomorrow night aer [having] dinner? KARA65.After e te form ofverbsindicates the passage of time: sincefor5 5Yamada-san gadaigaku 0 sotsugyo shite kara gonen ni narimasu.Five years havepassed since Yamada graduated from college. 2 5 2 0Ano futari gakekkon shite kara niju-nen da so desu.1 understand that it istwenty years since those two were married. J 1 hear at those twohave been married for twenty years. .6.Indicates materials used:from." Note: Karaand de(#12no. 3) esimilarinage.Howeverthe forrnertends to accompany materials that are the result of a somewhatcomplex process whereas the latter is generally used with materialsthat retainor appear to retaintheir original statesuch aswoodrockleatherpaperand glass.5 Wain wa budo kara tsukurimasu. Wineis made from grapes. 5 Tt wa nani kara tsukuru ka shitte imasu ka.D o you know what tofu is made from? 7.Indicates the agent of apsive verb (eperson or thing per-forming the action): byNote: Theagent of a psive verb is usually indicated by nibut karamayreplacewith no basic change in meaningwhen (1) the nounpreceding kara can be perceived more as the source ofan action thanas i ts agent and (2) when kara makes the meaning clearer byavoiding a repetition of ni ( Ae first example below). Examples ofother verbs in conjunction with lich kara can replace ni are aisuru (to love)kiku (to ask)meirei suru (to der)shikaru (toscold)shiraberu (to examine). 5 T atashi wa taishi kara pati nishotai saremashita. Has invited to a party by the ambassador. 25ino kacho kara shikarareta. Has scolded by the section chiefyesterday. Follows verbs a n dadjectives to indite a cause o rb euse."Indicates a cause or reason: sincebeuse." ote: Kara can bereplaced by no de (#26) this usage. In general(1) kara dicates amore subjective reasonno de a more objective one; and (2) no desofter and more polite kar : 5 oglhikatta kara.watashi-tachikoen eikimJlSen tJ.eshi. le didn't go to the park because w ewere toobusy. S no resutoran way ui kara itsu m o konde imasu. hatrestaurant is inexpensiveso it's a1ways crowded. M ADE65 2. Usedtrailingly at the end of a sentenindicates censure or warning tothe listener: o you had better." 5 .....Sonna kobakari itte iruminna ni kirawareru kara .If you say only those kinds ofthingsyou're going to be disliked byeveryone [so stop saying them]./ Ifyou keep saying things likthatpeople aren't going to like it. 5Benkyshinai shiken ni gokaku dekinai kara . . .Ifyou don't studyyouwon't be able to pass the exam [so you had better study]. lM A D EI 1.Indicates a time limitation for actions or events (often pairedwi kara): untiltillto." 95 Kono kaisha no shain kikara goji madehatarakimasu. The employees ofis mpany work from nine o'cIock tillfive o'cIock. 8 Kono depato wadoyobi nichiyobi wa hachiji madedesu. This department store isopen until eight o'cIock on Saturdaysand Sundays. 6 .M A D E2.Indicates the place to which an actionextends (often paired with kara): to." Kono hikoki wa Tokyo karaHonoruru made ikimasu. This plane goes o m Tokyo to Honolulu. Kokokara Kyomadenaikan kakarimasu ka. H o w long does it take to getfrom here to Kyoto? 3. Indicates the degree of a condition byciting an example (e.g. it is not just coldit is so cold that m yglasses have frozen over): evenso ... that." Kodomo dake de nakuotona madesono gemu 0tanoshinda. Not on1y the children but even theadults eoyed [playing] that game. Sono hi yama no ue wa totemosamukuteyugata ni wa yuki made kita.The top of the mountain was vecold at day; it even started snowing in the evening. I Themountaintop was so cold atdayat it even started to snow in theevening. *4. Indicates an extreme condition. Saito-san waano otokono hito to kekkon dekinakereba shinto made omoitsumeta so desu.M ADE67 Saito was apparent1yeven contemplating suicide if she w ereunable t o mtheman.Sono ryoshin wa kodomo no byoki ga naorunarazen-zaisan 0sutete m oii to made kangaete ita. If their childwould only get wellthe parents thought at they would even sacrificeall they owned. I The child's parents were [ even] prepared tosacrifice all ey owned if on1y he/she would recover. 5. At the endof a sentenceindicates a limitation or extent: is all." Kyo wa kokomade. That's all for today. (LitAs for todayup to here.)Toriaezugohkokumade. For your reference. (Lit For the momentas faras a report.) *6. In the form made m onai (which follows verbroots)empha-sizes extent or degree; the complete phrase m a ybetranslated: there is no need to." Ashita no pati ni wa wazawaza ikumade m onai. There is no need to go out of one's way [to make aspecial effort] to attend tomorrow's party. I Tomorrow's party ishardly worgoingto. -4' N OIu made m onai koto desu gkono kaisha nokeieijoiwakanari akka shite imu. Needless to say [it goes withoutsaying that]this company's oper-ations have deterioratedconsiderably. Nol 1.U s e dbetween t w onounsindicating that thefirst possesses or is rnodiring the second; also used in place ofgato indicate the subject in rnodiring dauses. 1.Indicatespossession: 'sJ' Kore wa Takagi-san no kasa desu. This is Takagi'sumbrella. Sorega Satosan no kuruma t}esu. That is Sat's car. Note:If the context is understoodthe s.econd noun can be omitted: SoregaSatosan no desu. T hat is Sat's. N2. Indicates position orlocation. Tsukueno isu no shita gao n o m kono tatemono " 0 hiro.The top ofthe desk [i on the desk]; under the chairj the [area in]front ofthe school; behind this building. 3.Indicates that thefirnoun ismodiing the second in terms of kind orcategoYamada-sensei wa Eigo no sensei desu. YaI1!ada is a teacherof Eng1ish [aI! E ng1ish teacher]. Konogakkwaryri nogakkdesu. Thisschool is a cooking school .4.Indicates that two nouns are inapposition. K K daigaku gakucho no Imai-shi ga enzetsu 0 shiteimasu.r. Imaithe president ofK iS.Il!aking a speech. Kochira gaSayama-san no onesan no Chikako-san desu. This is ChikakoSayama'selder sister. 5.Used to replace ga to dicate e subject of a clausemodifymganoun. Kore wa Sakamoto-san no kaita aburae desu. This isthe oil painting that Sakamoto p;lInted. N OKino anata no hanashiteita resutoran wa doko desu ka. W here is the restaurant you weretalking about yesterday? 11. U s e dto nominalize verbs a ndadjectives. 1.Simple nominalizer: ingwhat." Tenkiga rui desukaradoraibu ni iku no yamemaho.Since the weather is badlet's calloff going for a drive. Gaikoku-go 0manabu no w muzukashii desu ne.Larning a foreign language is difficultisn't it.Kanojo ga hoshii now arashiipiano desu. W hat she wants is a newpiano. 2.Used asanominalizer before verbofperception (e.g.mieru [to bevisle];kikoeru [to be audible]). Kono biru no oktkara kuruma ga hashitteiru no ga yoku m u.From the roof [top] of this buildingyou canclearly see the cars going by. (Lit.the driving cars are easilyvisible.) Onna no hito ga utte iru no ga kikoemasu. ne. You canhear a w o m a nsging n't you. (Lit . A woman's sin19is audible ...) . U s e dat the e n dofsentences. 1. Indicates a question(colloquial usage). Kaishahonto ni yameru no. You really quittingthe company? Ashita wa nanji ni dekakeru no. W hat time you leavingtomorrow? NO 112.Imparts a softer tone a statement (usuallyusedbywomen).Watashiraigetsu Furansu ni 1tugaku suru no. 1 will begoing to Francto study next m o nDoyobi wa konsato ni ikitai toomotte iru no. I'mthinking I'd like to go to a concert on Saturday.Indicates a mild command. Sonna koto i1-nai no. Don't say suchthings. / Don't sayat.Anawa damatte ireba ii no. You just keepquiet. (Lit.As for youif you keep silentit's good.)Oi1.Indicatesthe object of action (direct object). Yube wa eiga 0mita. 1 saw amovie yesterday evening. Harada-san wa tegami 0kaite iru. Harada iswriting a letter.2.Indicates the direct object of a p sive verb.whikindensha no naka de okane p5o nusumare-mashita. 1 had m y moneyand passport stolen in the train yesterday. Kanojo wa inu ni te0kamareta. She had her hand bitten by a dog. 3. Indicates theperson or thing made to do something in a caus-abve sentence.Sonoseiji-ka wazaikai-jin no pati ni hisho 0shusseki saseta. Thatpolitician had her secretary attend a business leaders' party.Buchwa buka oshutchsase. T he depart ment head sent a subordinateon a business trip. 4.Indicates a specific occupation or position(usually (ollowedby suru). Yamamoto-san no otosan w isha 0shiteiru. Yamamoto's faer is a physician. Watashi no ani washinbun-kisha 0shite imasu. M y elder brother is a newspaperreporter. 5. Used wit:Q verbs indicating wishes or dc:!sires endingin -tai or-tagaru. Kohi 0nomitai-n desu.1 want to drink somecoffee. Jon-san wa osushi 0tabetagatte imasu yo. John feels likeeating some sushi .6..Indicates .IDovement 'om.a smaller to alarger .place in bothconcrete and abstract senses. Note: (1)Contrast with ni (#13no. 4). (2) Although kara sounds correct o mthe standpoint ofEnglishitshould not be substitutedrois usage. a)Movement o m a smaller physical space to a larger physical place(with the larger place usually implicit). Mainichi Shinjuku-eki dechikatetsu 0orimasu.1 get off the subway at Shiuku Station everyday. ?tf 7405Yamamoto-san wa yugata goji-han ni kaisha 0 demase.Yamamoto leaves the office at 5:30 in the evening. b) Movement o ma smaller space in an abstract sense to alarger abstract space(e.g.from schoollife into society at large). Shusho wa Wasedadaigaku 0sotsugyo shita. The prime minister graduated o m WasedaUniversity. 70Oki-shi wananajussai ni natta toshi ni keizai-kai 0intai shita. M r.Oki retired from the business world when [in theye inwhich] he turned seventy. 7.W hen used with verbs ofmotionindicates the place of the motion. Kuruma de atarashii hashi0watatta. 1 crossed over the new bridge by car. Watashi no kuni dewakuruma wa michi no hidarigawa 0hashi-nmasu. In m y countrycarsdrive on the left side of the road. Konobasuwl depato no mae0torimasu ka. Does is bus pass in ont of the department store?KURAI (Q UA1) ' 158.Indicates the starting point of an action.6Shacho wa kayobi no gogo rokuji ni Narita 0 shuppa shimasu.lecorripany president w leave from Narita at 6 P.M. on Tuesday. 8 1'0Kono densha wa hachiji ni Tokyo-eki 0demasu kara okurenaide kitekudasai. This train leaves Tokyo Station at eight o'clockso pleasedon't be late. iK U R A I(GURAI) I( 1.Indicates an approximateamount or extent; in contrast with hodo d bakakurai denotes anapproximate quantity without Connoting its upper or lower limits:approximatelyabout." Note: Hodo (#20no. 1) and bakari (#21no. 1)may replakuraiinisusage. (305 Koko kara sono gakko made kuruma desanjippun guroi kakarimasu. It takes aboutthirty minutes by car toget to the school from here. 1005 Kino no pati ni kihito wahyakuninguroi datta omoimasu. 1 think about 100 people came to epartyyesterday. 6 KURAI (GURAI) 2.Indicates the extent of an action orcondition after a specific exampleis given: so atto the extentatNote: Hodo (#20no. 3) may replace kurailgurai in is u ge.5Yasuda-san no ryoko no hanashi wa omoshirokutejikan no tatsu no mowasureta kurai datta.Yasuda's stories ofher ip were so interestingat w e lost track oftime. 5 Hazuikute ana ga attara hairitai guraidatta. 1 was so embarrassed at 1 felt like crawling in a hole.(Lit.if there had been a hole1 would have wanted to go in it.)3.Indicates a comparison: as ...Note: Hodo (#20no. 2) may replacekurailguraithis usage. 5 Yamashita-san no atarashii ieno niwqw.a_gorufu-jo gurai no kisa da. The garden at Yamashita's n e whouse is as big as a golf course. 5 Jibun no ie kuraiii basho wanai.There's n oplace as nice as one's o w nhome. 4H O D O 77 l H OD O I1.Indicates an approximate amount or approximate m a xi mumextent; in contrast wi kurai and bakar i hodo ten ds to stressappromate upper limit: approximatelyabout."Note: Kurai (#19no.l)and bakari (#21no1) may replace hodo in thisusagealthough hodo issomewhat more formal .Raeu waisshukan hodo Kyushu e shutchoshimasu.Next morith 1'11 be going o na business trip to Kyushu foras long as a week. 100Kondo no jiko dehyakunin hodo no hito gashinda so desu. 1 hear at some 100 people died in this trafficaccident. 2.Indicates a comparison (used only in negativesentences):as .. . as." Note: Kurai may replace hodoisusagebut hodois more common.Kotoshi wa kyonen hodo samuku nai desu. This year isnot as cold as last year. Anohihodo atama no ii hiwa inai desho.N oone has as good a head as he has. / N o one is as smart as he is.'8 BAKARI 3.Indicates the extent of an action or condition byciting a spe-cific example: so ...atto the extent at."Note:1isusage is similar to kurai (#19no. 2). Kyo wa benkyo ga dekinai hodotsukareta. Today I'mso tired that 1 can't study. Shiken ni gokakushita no dureshikute nemurenai hodo desu. Since 1 passed theexaminationI'mso happyat 1 can't sleep. 4.Used in the form V-ba +Vhodo: the more ... the more." Kita e ikeba iku hodo samukunarimasu. The further north you gothe colder it gets. Toshi 0torebaru hodokarada ga yowaku narimasu. The older you getthe weaker yourbody becomes. BA Note: More informal forms of bakari are bakkar i ba k a s h and bakkashi. 1.Indicates an approximate amount orextent; in contrast to kurai and hodobakari tends (but only tends)to focus o nthe s ma1lness of the amount:approximatelyabout." Note:Kurai (#19no. 1) and hodo (#20no. 1) may replace bakari in thisusage.8 A K A RI79 2Ashita karatsuka bakari ryoko ni ittekimasu.Binning tomorrow1'11 be making a trip for a day or t/1 0 r ro w rli be leaving o na trip h r a couple ofdays-1D Ichi-man-enbakari kashite itadakemasen ka. Could you lend m esaysomething like1OOOO? 2."Not only ... but a1so." Note: W hile dake (#22no. 4) mayreplace bakari in this usagebakari isslightly more emphatic.Harada-san wapiano bakari de nakuuta m oumai-n desu yoHarada isgood not only at the piano but a1so at singing. Eigo bakari denakuFuransu-go m obenkyo shitai-n desu. 1 want to study not onlyEnglish but French as well .-Ein p h es?l tyo fe I mrr Ime- o n 1ly nothing but.' Note: (1) Sin C ethe position of bakari in the ser a cts t h e m ean nin l1:11:.Ve ve rsio ons ofo nnes sen nElnloose usagehoweverb 'akaritends toshio m theworditi s intended tomod iF leaving t h e m1bakaricon 1tains sa degree of disapprovalwhich dak edoes not.Kachwa konogoro uisuki bakari nondeimasu n The section chief is drinking nothing but whiskey thesedays. 80BAKARI Kachwa konogoro uisuki 0 nonde bakari imasu ne. Thesection chief is doing nothing but drink whiskey these days. qOKMJ16wuK3nogoro uiSUMo mMeiru bakari de5U ne. All the sectionchief does these days is drink whiskey.Terebi bakari mite iru m e0waruku shimasu yoIf all you do is watch T Vyou'll ruin your eyes. /Ifyou watch T Vall the timeyou'll ruin your eyes. Note: Hereterebi0mite iru bakari da me 0waruku shimasu yo isalso possible (andgrarnmatilly more acceptable)but the example above ismore commonand has the same meaning. 4.U sed after the -ta form of verbs:just." Note: If tokoro (#38no1) replaces bakari in this usagethemeaning issimilarbut bakari shows more emphasis. Chichi wa imakaette kibakari desu. M y father just now came home [ just gothome]. Jun-chan w gohan 0 beta bakari na no ni m o oya ohoshigattetmasu. Even ough Jun has just eaten a meal [just finished eating]he already wants a snack. I.AKs815. Emphasizes a reason or cause inthe phrase bakari ";: ( Just merely) becausefor the simple reason."Watanabe-san wa sutereo 0 kaitai bakari niissho-kenmei ni arubaitoo shite iru. Watanabe is working like a dog at his part-time jobfor the simplereason at he wants to buy a stereo. / Watanabe wantsto buy a stereo so badly that he is working for all he's worth athis part-
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